Challenges Facing E-leaning in Nigeria

 

The History of Written Literature in Nigeria

Written literature appeared in Northern Nigeria, home to the Hausa people, in the 14th century, brought by Arab traders and scholars. In the south, literacy spread in the 19th century through missionaries wanting to disseminate the Bible.

Nigerian Literature (written or oral) has evolved over the years. With the earliest records of written literature were found in the northern region in the 14th century brought by Arab traders and later in the south and western parts of Nigeria through missionaries and the translation of the Bible.. Nigerian literature, thus evolved as a result of contact with Arab merchants and colonial missionaries. As a result, Nigerian Literature was characterised by the encounters and experiences of the various encounters. A lot, however, about the tradition and culture of its people before colonial contact has often been overlooked or not very evident in its literature although this assertion can be argued as some of the earliest writings from Nigerian literature like Amos Tutuola’s the Palmwine Drinkard gave some credit to the existence of indigenous Yoruba myths and folktales. Hausa? It has become imperative to align with the various trends that have been associated with Nigerian Literature

There is a need for the translation and transmission of Nigerian Literature into acceptable and accessible forms. Although the literacy rate in Nigeria according to GlobalData ranking (2023), Nigerian literacy rate is now at about 62.02% yet very few have access to gadgets or digital platforms.

E-learning is faced with a lot of challenges in Nigerian. These challenges include inability of teachers to equip the students with the adequate knowledge of e-learning especially at the primary and secondary school levels. Only few schools, which are mostly privately owned, can boast of a few computers for their students learning. Because these electronic devises are expensive to acquire and maintain, the students and teachers hardly own one. As such, when the students get to the university, they are equally lost when they are faced with e-learning projects.

Olutola and Olatoye in their study titled Challenges of E-Learning Technologies in Nigerian University Education identified four obstacles affecting the total implementation of e-learning in developing countries. They are 

1. Connectivity: Limited or lack of connectivity in many developing countries including Nigeria Universities impedes access to online learning e.g. (E-learning). 

2. Equipment: E-learning requires equipment that can facilitate learning, but in some of Nigeria universities, the equipment such as computers, digital technology, and internet are not available for proper utilization. 

3. Software: Software enables educators to design and develop learning content. These softwares are costly and not available for use in some of our universities, to facilitate e-learning program. 

4. Training: No combination of connectivity, equipment and software will achieve anything if people are not trained to use them (Daniel, 2009). 

Plateau State University, Bokkos, prides itself among the new generation group of universities making positive efforts and impact in the digital world; yet, the situation is not different. Some lecturers and students have not learned to use some of the e-learning equipment; most of them are only starting to pay attention to it due to the increasing need for it in recent times. Access to digital versions of texts have proved difficult. For instance, in the Department of English, our students barely have access to electronic versions of the literature that they use. This has affected e-learning programmes in the university. Many students lack confidence and experience with computers; some of them lack skills to use common applications such as Microsoft Word, Excel and Power Point; this affects their participation in e-learning. 

However, in the Department of English, there are a few computers meant for the language laboratory, which can equally be used for e-literature. Yet internet connectivity, computer programs, and electricity are still a problem. Consequently, access to digital versions of texts have proved difficult.  The cost of providing stable internet connectivity is high such that the school may not be ready to provide the much that would be needed for e-learning. Computer software can be very expensive that the school may equally not be willing to provide. The electricity supply in the university is poor; therefore, it is usally inadequate for e-learning. Unfortunately, only few students have their personal electronic devises that can be used for e-learning. 

Metrical phonology

 

Metrical phonology is one of the basic areas that mark the difference between Giegerich’s and Gimson’s account of stress. It is an aspect of phonologically established stress that accounts for certain stress assignment that could not be accounted for by other phonological criteria for stress placement. Syllables are grouped into feet and the first syllable in a foot bears the primary stress. Kangaroo has two feet because it has two stressed syllables; the initial syllable takes the secondary stress while the final one takes the primary stress. The penultimate syllable is not stressed. Metrical structures are basically hierarchical, every level most be adequately represented.

Giegerich says that Metrical phonology “is the basic vocabulary of a rather versatile notational system for all kinds of prominence phenomena in phonology”. Below are the metrical structures for camera, pity and bit.

Metrical phonology is a concept in generative phonology, for this reason, Gimson does not include it in his account of stress. He does not emphasize the various degrees of stress from word level to foot level. However he acknowledges that not all the stressed syllables in a polysyllable utterance have the same prominence thereby necessitating the need to observe primary, secondary and unstressed syllables.

Giegerich uses metrical phonology to account for the placement of stress at the foot level showing how primary and secondary stress can be displayed in a tree. Bamboo for instance has two syllables and two feet because it has two stressed syllables (primary and secondary). Happy has only one bisyllabic foot.

The problem that metrical phonology attempts to solve is a situation where words like pity and elite are stressed on the initial syllable. The initial syllables in the above words are not heavy, how then can we account for their stress placement.

Feet

Giegerich explains that stress is not only meant to differentiate words but also to maintain rhythm in connected speech as English is a stressed timed language, stresses occur at regular intervals. It strives to achieve isochrony (equality in time). In an isochronous utterance, stress marks the syllable that begins a foot. The segments of an utterance are organised into  syllables and syllables into feet.

Giegerich establishes the foot level rule of stress where he says that if the final syllable is heavy, assign a foot to it. Example, bamboo

If the penultimate syllable is initial and heavy, assign a foot to it.

Rules of stress

Geigerich introduces two rules of stress, word level and foot level rules. These are rules that determine the form of metrical structures, and they are divided into two.

Foot level Rules

This rule assigns feet to syllables and determine what syllable bears stress. It considers syllable weight and morphological and syntactic information.

For assignment of foot in nouns

1.      Assign a foot to final syllable if it is heavy, has a long vowel, eg July or is an exceptional noun. Cadet belongs to the exceptional group.

2.      Assign a bisyllabic foot to the penultimate syllable if it is heavy and initial, e.g. aroma.

3.      Assign a foot to the penultimate syllable if it is initial and heavy, e.g. textile.

4.      Assign a maximal bi- or trisyllabic foot to any remaining string of syllables from right to left, and ensure that the word has at least one foot e.g. America.

Word level rule

This rule assign structure above the foot level and thereby tells the difference between primary and secondary stresses. It ensures that every word is represented by a single node.

Example

Word Prominence Rule (or Lexical Category Prominence Rule)

When we have a pair of sister nodes [N₁ N₂], N₂  is strong:

1.      if it branches above syllable level.

2.      if the word is foreign

3.      if it is an exceptional noun

4.      if the word is a verb.

At the foot level, he says that all branching foot structures are left-strong; that is the nodes at the right are weak.

Gimson observes that for purpose of numerous exceptions, it will be difficult to restrict stress placement to any specific rules. However, there are tendencies for prediction of stress, one of which is by identifying strong syllable. Strong syllables according to him have long vowels or diphthong or a short vowel plus two consonants. Strong syllables usually take stress.

He also observes that the division of words into roots and affixes can be used in predicting stress. He adds that roots are usually stressed but affixes are usually not.

Word class is another area that can be used to determine word stress as said by Gimson. This means that the class of a word determines how the word will be stressed. Verbs are stressed on the final syllable if the syllable is strong, e.g. relate, arrive etc. The penultimate syllable is stressed if the final is not stressed, e.g. whisper, punish, worship etc.

In adjectives, the final syllable is stressed if it is accented, e.g. mature, secure afraid. If not so, stress falls on the penultimate syllable or on the antepenultimate syllable, e.g. neutral, necessary, dangerous etc.

In nouns, a strong final syllable is optionally stressed, e.g. i dea, ma chine. Otherwise, the penultimate or antepenultimate (if the penultimate has a reduced vowel) syllable is stressed, e.g. tomato, potato, moment etc.

Stress beyond word level

This refers to stress allocation above the word level. In a connected speech, some syllables tend to be more prominent than others. The accentual pattern of connected speech is largely dependent on the intended meaning of the utterance.

Giegerich says that the concept of primary and secondary levels of stress applys at the sentence and phrase levels. He uses the term isochrony to explain that intervals between stressed syllables have equal time. Isochrony helps to achieve rhythm in speech. Gimson says that rhythm is enabled by stress timing. An equal amount of time is said to be taken between each two stressed syllables and between the last stressed syllable and the end of the utterance. Example:

They | couldn’t have | chosen | a bet|ter time for | their holiday.

 

Another area of English speech that Giegerich shows interest in is eurhythmy. This attempts to achieve perfect rhythm by the alternation of strong and weak syllables in a way that makes speech more pleasant than just a matter of communication.

When the boys come out to play this statement illustrates eurhythmy.

Intonation

The two scholars have used different marking to show the contouring structure of stress in a phrase. Giegerich shows intonation the stress pattern by using an unbroken line that goes up or down as it indicates the various levels of stress.

 

a.       a blackbird                                          b. a blackbird?

 

c.       a black bird                                         d. a black bird?

Gimson uses dots or circles to show the stress in a string of words.

 

a.       a blackbird                                          b. a blackbird?

 

c   a black bird                                           d. a black bird?

The two notations used by these scholars show that primary stresses have changing pitch. Gimson adds that pitch change has three functions.

1.      It signals the division of utterances into intonational phrases.

2.      It signals syllables with primary and secondary accent.

3.       The shape of the tunes produced by pitch changes can carry various types of meaning.

 

What is Poetry?

Poetry is the expression of deep feelings of joy or sadness through the use of carefully and creatively selected words. These feelings are captured through figurative use of language like metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole etc. As pointed out earlier, you may call a person a pig because of how bad you feel about the person’s personality. Jesus is called the Lion of Juda not because He is a lion but because He cannot be beaten in any way. He wins every battle. You could be so troubled or excited so much that you lack words to express your innermost feeling, and you liken the situation or person to something else that would create a more vivid picture. This is what deep feeling is about. Feelings expressed through poetry can be said to be more intense than that expressed in prose or drama.

In calling someone a dog, you try to economise words and time and space. You use a few words within a short time and space to say a lot. You try to talk about how good a person is and instead of taking all the words in the world to describe your feeling about this person, you could just summarise in the few words: “He is an angel.” You won’t need any more time or words for explanation. With poetry, you can use only ten lines to say something that would need one hundred prose lines to say.

Now I am sure you can see how important poetry is. Even in prose, writers now use poetic language because of the convincing effect it would add to their story. It makes an expression more vivid and convincing. You may also decide to start writing poems from now, or speak in poetic terms. If I say that “I have been to your house a thousand times to look for you,” don’t call me a lair, because I am not lying; I am using hyperbole to express how seriously I needed to meet with you and that I have made every effort to find you.

Know who the writer of a poem is if you want to understand the poem

Not mandatory, but it is important to know who the writer of a poem is, where he was when he wrote the poem. His experience definitely has affected or influenced his writing. As said earlier, poetry is an expression of a genuine feeling from the heart of the writer. There are no lies in them and they are mostly not fiction. It has been observed that poets die young. You should know why because we have said earlier that it is the person’s deep feeling. That feeling could be that of pain, regret, frustration and it may be that of excitement or great joy. However, the majority are sad which may explain why most poets would die at young age. Some even commit suicide because of their painful experiences. Even though we celebrate them through there writing.

Analysis of Gabriel Okara’s Piano and Drums

Before you go through this analysis, read “How to Understand Poetry”

Now let us ride on over this piece of poem; “piano and drum” by Gabriel Okara. You should read it first to the end, then try to understand it and get what it is about. On the surface, it may not be making much sense but with close attention you will see the sense in it.

When at break of day at a riverside
I hear the jungle drums telegraphing
the mystic rhythm, urgent, raw
like bleeding flesh, speaking of
primal youth and the beginning
I see the panther ready to pounce
the leopard snarling about to leap
and the hunters crouch with spears poised;

And my blood ripples, turns torrent,
topples the years and at once I’m
in my mother’s laps a suckling;
at once I’m walking simple
paths with no innovations,
rugged, fashioned with the naked
warmth of hurrying feet and groping hearts
in green leaves and wild flowers pulsing.

Then I hear a wailing piano
solo speaking of complex ways in
tear-furrowed concerto;
of far away lands
and new horizons with
coaxing diminuendo, counterpoint,
crescendo. But lost in the labyrinth
of its complexities, it ends in the middle
of a phrase at a daggerpoint.

And I lost in the morning mist
of an age at a riverside keep
wandering in the mystic rhythm
of jungle drums and the concerto.

Does this poem make any sense to you? Maybe it does and maybe only little and maybe not at all. If it looks confusing, maybe we should try looking up some difficult words in the dictionary.

e.g.

i.                    mystic – seeking to know God

ii.                  primal – primitive

iii.                panther – a black leopard

iv.                pounce – to attack

v.                  snarling – growling

vi.                crouch – bend low

vii.              concerto –

viii.            horizons –

ix.                groping –

x.                  ripples –

xi.                labyrinth –

xii.              diminuendo –

xiii.            counterpoint –

xiv.            topples –

 

Do this for the first stanza and read again and try to make some sense.

Talking about riverside in the morning, jungle drums, primal youth, panther, leopard, hunters and spears should give an idea that the stanza is about a rural setting, a village let’s say. Usually in the villages people go to the stream early in the morning to get water. Perhaps the persona has just done the same, and he hears the sound of drum in the bushes; and drums are sometimes used in the villages to send messages to the people. He “hears the jungle drums telegraphing the mystic rhythm” – a message of urgency and fear about the illiterate villagers who are mostly hunters. The people are faced with a leopard - a dangerous animal.

I am sure you can now have a picture of villagers, precisely youths, trying to defend themselves against a leopard in the bush in the morning. Now find the meanings of difficult words in stanza two.

Line nine shows the terrible feeling of the person and suddenly, he feels like a baby who cannot help himself because he does not know how. He is confused in this jungle and feeling helpless.

In stanza three he hears “a wailing piano where the singer’s voice is that of weeping and talking about something new that has forced itself into the society to change the original existence.

Stanza four he says he is lost and confused because of the nature of the jungle drum and concerto.

The jungle drum represents our traditional society, its culture and experience. The piano concerto represents the western civilization. It is true that this days, the African society is a mixture of African traditions and western civilization so that people are confused not know how to live the tow. They find it difficult to hold onto any of the two alone. This is the position of the persona on the sad note. Civilization has changed our way of life yet it has not left it any better.

How do you feel at this point? The poem is simple, is it not?

Now let’s examine the poetic devices Okara has used. You can try that first before you come back and we do it together.

-          You can notice the flow of idea from line one to line two, what do you call that? It is a run on line. The writer uses that to break the long whole of idea into smaller parts so the reader can follow easily. The poem has run-on-line all through.

-          I hear the jungle drums telegraphing. You may ask; can drums send telegraphs? So, what would we call such expression? “The same applies to wailing piano.” Is it personification?

-          Line 4 – “like bleeding flesh” is an example of simile. The writer compares the mystic rhythm to a wounded body to make the message of agony very vivid.

-          “break of day” in line one, shows the repetition of vowel sounds which is an example of assonance. Likewise “jungle drums.”

-          Alliteration can be seen in “panther …pounce, turns torrent, morning mist”.

-          Repetition – “at once” is repeated in lines 11 and 13

-          Metaphor – “my blood ripples”.

Leave a comment about how you feel about this discussion.

Ask other questions.

Types of poetry

1.      Lyric: this is a short song that expresses personal feelings about certain important issues. A lyre is usually played to accompany it.

2.      Narrative poem: this poem tells a story.

3.      Ode: is a poem which speaks about the quality of a person or an object in an appreciative manner. Example: Ode on a Grecian urn, by John Keats.

4.      Pastoral: this poem describes the simple life of a rural community, like shepherds, farmers, music, dance etc. which distinguishes the rural people from the urban people.

5.      Ballard: this is a story passed from one generation to another by word of mouth, through a song accompanied by a dance. Its theme is often tragic.

6.      Sonnet: this is a fourteen-line poem divided into two verses of six and eight lines (sestet and octave). It usually captures themes of love.

7.      Epic: this is a long narrative poem often about heroic achievements. It captures historic facts about heroes which may be human or supernatural.

8.      Limerick: it is poem of five lines with the rhyming scheme aabba. It does not address serious issues because its words are usually indecent and humorous.

9.      Lullaby: this is poem that is song for a child to go to sleep.

10.  Panegyric: this is a poem of praise used in a traditional African setting. It is used to praise humans, animals or gods whether on positive or negative references.

11.  Blank verse/ free verse: this is a poem that does not have a rhyme scheme.

12.  Dirge: it is poem used to express grief when a person dies. It is a sorrowful song.

13.  Traditional poem: this is a poem that is African in form and style.

Types of prose

 

Prose

This is an ordinary style of expression that is straight forward without rhetoric that will require special effort to understand. Novels are written in prose.

Types of prose

Prose is divided into fiction and nonfiction.

Non-Fiction

Non-fiction refers to a story that is true and not based on mere imagination. It has a historical record that can be proved.

1.      Biography: this is a true life story that is written about an individual’s experience that could be sad or happy. It is written by a person other than the same individual.

2.      Autobiography: this story is equally about an individual but written by the same person. This means that the person tells his own story.

3.      Memoir:

4.      Epistle:

Fiction

1.      Short story: this is a story about a single theme or subject. It is not as long as a novella or novel, usually less than three thousand words.

2.      Novella: this is longer than a short story and not as long as a novel, about three to 10000 words.

3.      Novel: this is a long fiction that contains imaginative characters but written based on true life experiences. A story is best accepted as a novel if it has up to thirty-five thousand words.

4.      Fable: this is a narrative which possesses the attributes of surface and metaphorical meanings. It is usually pointing out societal flaws using animal characters.

5.      Allegory:

6.      Romance: this refers to a fanciful tale whose setting, characters, incidents, etc. are out of this world as it is said in popular parlance. Its characters and events are usually impossible in the human sense. They are used more only for entertainment.

7.      Parable: this a prose work that is used to capture moral truth. It is often didactic.

Features of prose

1.      Theme/subject matter

2.      Plot

Types of plot

i.         Linear: in a story with a linear plot, the story begins and moves gradually in a chronological order of events to the middle and then to the end.

ii.       Episodic: this story is not chronological in that the story can begin from the middle of the story then to the beginning before jumping to the end. Such stories can equally start at the end and unveil events that lead to the present state by moving to the beginning of the story. An example of such stories is the last good man by patience Swift.

Narrative techniques

First person narrative technique: this refers to a perspective of story-telling from the standpoint of the narrator. The principle pronouns in such stories are I, me, we, my, our etc. That is, a person tells a story as though it is his personal experience even though it may not be.

Third person narrative technique: this narrative technique takes on the third person pronouns like he, him, they, their, etc. because it is narrated from a third person point of view. The narrator tells the story as someone talking about the experience of another person which he was told or he witnessed; for instance when you talk about your father, you will use the third person narrative technique.

Omniscient narrative technique: this narrative technique is similar to the third person narrative technique in that it uses the third person pronoun except that the narrator here is all-knowing. The narrator is like a god that can see different events at the same time, and can tell the thought of his characters. In third person narrative technique, the narrator speaks of his experience but in omniscient narrative technique, the narrator creates the world he chooses.

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How to Understand Poetry: for WASSCE candidates

I know you want to write your literature examination and pass it; and of course maybe to pass with an excellent grade. Now, that is why I have written this to help you. Success is actually in your hand; my part is only of a helper, to give you a guide as you embark on this journey to success. That you have this write-up does not guarantee you a ‘C’ or an  ‘A’ but it is how you use the it that will determine whether or not you will pass very well in this exam you are preparing to write. There are a number of books that have been written to help students pass literature; however, I have seen how students still have challenges understanding the books; that is why I have written this. I believe that if you have been having any difficulty in literature this is the end of your struggle. Just ensure that you do whatever you are asked to do in this book.

As you study, pay attention to the earlier part of the book because towards the end, references may be made to the earlier part where we don’t have to repeat some things.

We decide to start with poetry because it is more of the basic reason for this book. You may be able to read the novels and plays which you can get from the market. And of course, you may read them and are able to answer questions on them easily. But in the case of poetry, you may always need some assistance. Moreover, the poems you are to study are not all from one poet, so they are not found in one collection.

 

First, I like you to note that the language of poetry is not literal as in prose and drama. That is the reason why we have to study some basic poetic devices before this discussion. If you have not read those pages on poetic devices, please do so before you continue here; it is the secret to understanding poetry. Don’t be in a rush or find a deadly short cut, you will not only get yourself the more confused, but also frustrated, and discouraged. You need the poetic devices to unravel the hidden messages behind those poetic lines. Take for instance, someone says “tell that pig to come in”, of course you will be the real pig if you actually expect to find a literal pig to invite into the house. Perhaps you might find some unkempt, dirty and uncoordinated person at the door. That is the ‘pig’. The device used such situation is metaphor. So in poetry, you must try to find a meaning different from the meaning of the word in its literal form.

If a person tells you, ‘I held the sun in my hand, my determination sucked its power to burn,” why would you expect that this is true - a person to hold the sun in his hand. Could that ever be done? Why don’t you say perhaps, this person is saying that a difficult situation which seems almost impossible to overcome, I was able to overcome because of my determination to succeed”. Friend, this is just how poetry works. You think outside the box, and you won’t see poetry as a bunch of uncoordinated words that don’t make any sense.

Now, let us see how we can demystify this bunch of seemingly uncoordinated words that just won’t make sense at all to you. But first, you must say to yourself that there is sense in it, and that you must get the sense to the surface. Even if you read 10 times and still can’t get the sense, insist that the sense must come out because if there were no sense in it, no one will be asking you to read it.

Well, the sense to make from it could be from different perspectives.

1.      It may have an interesting matter to discuss. “Africa” by David Diop for instance tells you about how Africans suffered in the hands of the White during the slave era; how even in their suffering, they had hope that someday freedom will come. Eventually, Obama could become the president of America. This is interesting, is it not?

2.      You may be drawn to creativity employed to pass the message more than the essence of the message itself. Imagine these “when the skeletons of stillborn promises rot in the catacomb’ this is referring to the promises politicians are likely to make to their people. They are “still born” meaning that before they are said, they are dead and buried – obvious lies. You can see that the poetic expression is very weighty with meaning. But literally, someone may say, ‘What nonsense is this?” “How can promises be stillborn and buried in the tomb when they are not humans”. You can see personification and metaphor in action. Interesting, isn’t it? “If insist that the use of poetic devices still does not make sense, well, don’t think of visiting a native doctor.” Think of reading this from the beginning again.

We may have to note first what is this poetry about? Why do people write poetry, is it just to show how much they can play with words or they just love to confuse their listeners or readers. You may also be asking why should or must you read poetry.

Well, if you know the answers to these questions you will make poetry your friend; I assure you. Perhaps you have not realized that poetry tells stories just like prose and drama. The three do just the same work of storytelling, but using different mode, that is it. The question why would people choose to tell their story through poetry still remains in the minds of readers. This question will be answered through a simple definition of poetry. 

 

Definition of literature

Literature is a creative represent of life through poetry, prose, or drama.  It is a reflection of the society through writing.

It is also defined as any written work directed at addressing some peculiarities about a group of people who are bounded together by some values including language, culture, historical antecedent, beliefs, folklores and any other socially unifying object like a piece of writing. When a literature is written in English, it is referred to as literature in English. When a literature captures the life of the English people, it is referred to as English Literature.

Importance of Literature

1.      Literature is used for entertainment

2.      Literature is used for preservation of history

3.      Literature is used as a medium of transferring historical records from one generation to another.

4.      It is used to educate people about social values.

5.      It can be used to criticise societal ills.

Genres of Literature

The genres of Literature are three. They are drama, prose and poetry.

Drama

This a medium of storytelling that involves dialogue between characters. That is, characters are made to express themselves by saying what they want to say and not a narrator speaking for them. Drama is written. When acted on stage, it is called play.

Types of drama

Comedy: this is a drama that is full of amusing scenes. It teaches serious lessons in a light atmosphere. It usually has a happy ending.

Tragedy: this drama is like the opposite if comedy in that it is loaded with sad scenes, and usually ends on a sad note.

Tragi-comedy: this is a mixture of comedy and tragedy but the end is usually a happy one. The protagonist is faced with difficult experiences that cause him to suffer and attract the reader’s pity.

Poetic drama: this is a drama that is written in poetic verses.

Mime: the characters in this type of play do not speak. They use actions to communicate

Pantomime: this is a mine that is accompanied with music.

 

Melodrama: this drama is

 

Masque:

Opera:

 

 

Characteristics of drama: drama is written in acts and scenes. An act is divided in to scenes. There can be two or more scenes in an act, and full drama can have two or more acts. It involves dialogue between characters. When you discuss drama, you will always need to talk about its element which are plot, character, actions, acts, setting and dialogue.

Literary devices

 These devices include dramatic, poetic and narrative devices

Dramatic Devices/Features of drama

1.      Action: this refers to what the characters in a play do and how they do them.

2.      Antagonist: this is a person who opposes the protagonist in play.

3.      Anti-hero: this is a character in a play, who lacks the qualities of a hero. He is a central character that is not identified by any braveness, strength or success.

4.      Aside: a character speaks to the audience assuming that fellow characters in the play do not hear him.

5.      Audition:  this is the process of selecting characters to participate in a play. The people are called to practice.

6.      Cast: the actors or performers in a play that are recognized by the specific role they play.

7.      Catharsis: this is an effect on the emotional expression of the audience or readers which may lead to shedding of tears. The shedding of tears becomes a means to ease tension.

8.      Characterisation: this is the process of creating characters where their roles are specified.

9.      Characters: this are the people through the playwright communicates his thought to his readers or his audience

10.  Chorus: this is where two or more characters express similar opinion at the same time usually in support or rejection of a common situation.

11.  Climax: this refers to the peak of the tension in the story. This is the time that the audience are very eager to know what happens next and it is usually close to the end of the play. It introduces the denouement.

12.  Conflict: this refers to the issue that has to be resolved between the protagonist and the antagonist in a play. It is the major problem that needs to be solved or the questions that have been created in the mind of the reader or audience which needs to be answered.

13.  Denouement: this is the event that comes after the climax.it is the moment where the conflict in the play is resolved. It is also known as resolution.

14.  Deus ex machine: this is where a most wanted help comes at a much unexpected time in an unexpected way. This can be linked to providences and the intervention of a supernatural force.

15.  Dialogue: this is the process of interaction among characters in a play.

16.  Dramatic irony: this is a device used in drama, where a character acts out of ignorance whereas the audience know the real outcome of the situation.

17.  Dramatis personae: The list of actors in a play usually presented before a play begins.

18.  Dramatist: this person writes and direct plays written by him or someone else.

19.  Epilogue: this is a concluding comment that comes at after a play has ended.

20.  Flashback: a recall of an event that had occurred before the present event usually used to explain the link between the present situation and something that had occurred in the past.

21.  Peripety: this is period of sudden change in the experience of a succeeding hero that leads to a sad ending.

22.  Playwright: this is a person who writes a play.

23.  Plot: the sequential arrangement of events in a play showing the connection between the events in the play.

24.  Poetic drama: this is a play written in poetic verse. It can be performed or read dramatically.

25.  Producer: this is a person whose work is to finance and organize the performances of a play.

26.  Projection: this is the opposite of flashback. The writer reveals an event in the future which is likely to be the result of an action in the present.

27.  Prologue: this an introductory comment that comes before a play begins.

28.  Prompter: this person’s activity is off-stage. He reminds the actors of lines they forget.

29.  Proscenium Arch: the front of the stage before the place where the audience are siting.

30.  Protagonist: the most prominent character in a play or novel. This can also be referred to as hero (for a male) or heroin (for a female).

31.  Soliloquy: this is when the actor speaks out his thought so that the audience know what he/she is thinking.

32.  Stage directions: these are the instructions decided and given by the playwright on how the play should be done. They include the designing of the state, the activities of the actors etc.

33.  Suspense: this is the state of anxiety and expectation created in the audience as the activities in a play unfold. It leaves the audience eager to know what will happen next.

34.  Tragic Flaw: this refers to the shortcoming or weakness of a hero, like pride, which leads to his downfall.

35.  Tragic Hero: this is a hero who starts off well and later falls into trouble that he does not get out of. The end of his life is sad.

36.  Eponymous character: a major character whose name is used as the title of a novel.

37.  Flat character: this character lacks complex features in his/her activities. It is easy to predict his actions.

38.  Round character: this character is not easily predictable because of the possibility of change in his/her action. This character can easily change from evil to good or good to evil; strong to weak or weak to strong.

39.  Setting: this can be seen as the physical, social or periodic relation of the story. That is, it refers to the place, social dispensation or time when the event takes place.

40.  Diction: this refers to the writer’s choice of words. The writer would always choose special words to use in his story in order to capture specific message or create an effect in the reader.

41.  Theme: this can also be called subject matter. It is the basic idea in the story.

42.  Symbol: this is used in narratives to pass information without necessarily using words for explanation. For instance, when red is used to describe a situation, that situation is known to be dangerous.

43.  Satire: this is a writing style that the writer uses to criticise evil in the society.

44.  Allegory: this is another feature of prose where characters and events depict certain qualities or ideas related to human activities.

45.  Fable: they are stories that usually have animal characters that are made to represent humans. Such stories address social or political issues in the society.

46.  Biography: this is a story written about a person by a different person.

47.  Autobiography: this is a story written about a person by the same person.

48.  Epistle: this is a literary work that is written as a letter.

49.  Memoir:  this is an autobiography of an important person who has been part of a major event in the history of a people.

50.  Atmosphere: this refers to the psychological background of a literary work. The atmosphere may be tense or relaxed as felt by the reader. It can even be ecstatic.

51.  Canto: a canto is a division of a poem that is longer than a normal stanza. That is, if what is to be called a stanza becomes as long as a chapter, it is referred to as conto.

52.  Couplet: this refers to two successive rhyming lines in a poem.

53.  Enjambment: this is also known as run-on line. It refers to a situation where one idea runs from one line to the next. That is, the two lines must be read to capture the full idea.

54.  Metre: it is a sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. A line of five syllables can be written in a way that a weak syllable comes between every two strong syllables.

55.  Mood: this is the attitude expressed in a poem.

56.  Quatrain: this is a group of four lines in a poem.

57.  Rhyme: this refers to a situation where two or more lines of poetry end with the same sound.

58.  Rhyme scheme: this refers to the sequence by which rhyme occurs in a poem. The two first lines may end with the same sound and the next two with a different sound. The alternation can also be between single lines.

59.  Refrain: this refers to a word, phrase or sentence that is repeated at intervals in a poem.

60.  Stanza: this is one of the groups of words into which a poem is divided.

61.  Tone: this is the attitude of the poem expressed through the words in a poem.

62.  Subject matter: this refers to the direct meaning of the poem.

63.  Triplet: this is a group of three lines in poetry.

64.  Verse: this is a line of poetry or a composition written in metre.

65.  Sestet: this is a group of six lines in poetry.

66.  Octave: this is a group of eight lines in poetry.

67.  Pentameter: a line of poetry that contains five feet.

68.  Metonymy: a figure of speech in which an attribute of something is used to stand for the thing itself e.g. "laurels" when it stands for "glory".

69.  Pun

This is a play on words e.g. “what is the longest sentence you know?” where sentence could refer to the prison sentence or an aspect of grammar.

70.  Oxymoron

This is a combination of two seemingly contradictory or incongruous words, as in the line by the English poet Sir Philip Sidney in which lovers are said to speak “of living deaths, dear wounds, fair storms, and freezing fires.” (Compare with paradox, below.)

71.  Figure of Speech

This refers to word or group of words used to emphasize an idea. The speaker decides to use a combination of words that would not express its exact literary meaning. The use of figurative expressions has existed since the ancient times. Writers and orators or praise singers use it to paint a more vivid picture of their inner expression. They used it to achieve a greater effect than a literal expression can express. Only few words with figurative quality can send a message that would require a thousand words; that is why poetry cannot be done without it.

72.  Anticlimax

This is a sequence of ideas that abruptly diminish in dignity or importance at the end of a sentence or passage, generally for satirical effect. The following sentence illustrates anticlimax: “Among the great achievements of Benito Mussolini's regime were the revival of a strong national consciousness, the expansion of the Italian Empire, and the running of the trains on time.” (Compare with climax, below.)

73.  Antithesis

It is a juxtaposition of two words, phrases, clauses, or sentences contrasted or opposed in meaning. An example of antithesis is the following line by the English poet Alexander Pope: To err is human, to forgive is divine.

74.  Apostrophe

This is a device by which an actor turns from the audience, or a writer from readers, to address a person who usually is either absent or deceased, an inanimate object, or an abstract idea. The English poet John Milton, in his poem Il Penseroso, invokes the spirit of melancholy in the following words: “Hail divinest Melancholy, whose saintly visage is too bright to hit the sense of human sight.”

75.  Climax

arrangement of words, clauses, or sentences in the order of their importance, the least forcible coming first and the others rising in power until the last, as in the following sentence: “It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen; it is a crime to scourge him; it is almost parricide to kill him; but to crucify him—what shall I say of this?”

76.  Conceit

This is an elaborate, often extravagant metaphor or simile, making an analogy between totally dissimilar things. The term originally meant “concept” or “idea.” The use of conceits is especially characteristic of 17th-century English metaphysical poetry. An example occurs in the poem “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” by the English poet John Donne, in which two lovers' souls are compared to the prongs of a drawing compass.

77.  Euphemism

Substitution of a delicate or inoffensive term or phrase for one that has coarse, sordid, or otherwise unpleasant associations, as in the use of “lavatory” or “rest room” for “toilet,” and “pass away” for “die.”

78.  Hyperbole:

A form of inordinate exaggeration according to which a person or thing is depicted as being better or worse, or larger or smaller, than is actually the case, as in the sentence from an essay by the English writer Thomas Babington Macaulay: “Dr. Johnson drank his tea in oceans.” (Compare with litotes, below.)

79.  Irony

This refers to humorous or lightly sarcastic mode of speech, in which words are used to convey a meaning contrary to their literal sense. An instance of irony is the suggestion, put forward with apparent seriousness by the English satirist Jonathan Swift in his “A Modest Proposal”, that the poor people of Ireland should rid themselves of poverty by selling their children to the rich to eat.

80.  Litotes:

Understatement employed for the purpose of enhancing the effect of the ideas expressed, as in the sentence “The English poet Thomas Gray showed no inconsiderable powers as a prose writer,” meaning that Gray was in fact a very good prose writer. (Compare with hyperbole, above.)

81.  Metaphor

Use of a word or phrase denoting one kind of idea or object in place of another word or phrase for the purpose of suggesting a likeness between the two. Thus, in the biblical Book of Psalms, the writer speaks of God's law as “a light to his feet and a lamp to his path.” Other instances of metaphor are contained in the sentences “He uttered a volley of oaths” and “The man tore through the building.” (Compare with simile, below.)

82.  Metonymy

The use of a word or phrase for another to which it bears an important relation, as the effect for the cause, the abstract for the concrete, and similar constructions.

Examples: “He was an avid reader of Chaucer,” when the poems of the English writer Geoffrey Chaucer are meant, and “The hostess kept a good table,” when good food is implied. (Compare with synecdoche, below.)

83.  Onomatopoeia

Imitation of natural sounds by words. Examples in English are the italicized words in the phrases “the humming bee,”” the cackling hen,” “the whizzing arrow,” and “the buzzing saw.”

84.  Paradox

Statement or sentiment that appears contradictory to common sense yet is true in fact. Examples of paradox are “mobilization for peace” and “a well-known secret agent.” (Compare with oxymoron, above.)

85.  Personification

 Representation of inanimate objects or abstract ideas as living beings, as in the sentences “Necessity is the mother of invention,” “Lean famine stalked the land,” and “Night enfolded the town in its ebon wings.”

86.  Rhetoric

This refers to theory and practice of eloquence, whether spoken or written. Spoken rhetoric is oratory. Rhetoric defines the rules that should govern all prose composition or speech designed to influence the judgment or the feelings of people. It therefore treats of all matters relating to beauty or forcefulness of style (see Figure of Speech). In a narrower sense, rhetoric is concerned with a consideration of the fundamental principles according to which oratorical discourses are composed: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. This article deals primarily with the theory of rhetoric.

87.  Rhetorical question

Asking of questions not to gain information but to assert more emphatically the obvious answer to what is asked. No answer, in fact, is expected by the speaker. The device is illustrated in the following series of sentences: “Did you help me when I needed help? Did you once offer to intercede in my behalf? Did you do anything to lessen my load?”

88.  Simile

Specific comparison by means of the words “like” or “as” between two kinds of ideas or objects. Examples of the simile are contained in the sentence “Christianity shone like a beacon in the black night of paganism” and in the line by the English poet William Wordsworth: “But, like a thirsty wind, to roam about.” (Compare with metaphor, above.)

89.  Synecdoche

Figurative locution whereby the part is made to stand for the whole, the whole for a part, the species for the genus, and vice versa. Thus, in the sentence “The president's administration contained the best brains in the country,” ’brains” is used for intellectually brilliant persons.

90.   

91.  Caricature:

92.  Innuendo:

93.  Antithesis: